Case studies of the strategies used to reduce NOx emissions at three European refineries. CO and feed nitrogen effects on emissions were taken into account, and a significant reduction in emissions was achieved with the use of additives
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Additional FCCU capacity can often be achieved by implementing new packing and distributor designs, even if the main fractionator has already been revamped. The author presents some of the factors to be considered in evaluating a revamp
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Analyses of some common process unit limits, emphasising when equipment systems must be modified or new ones added. Knowing just where to focus investment depends primarily on process fundamentals and equipment basics
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Improvements made during naphtha hydrotreater operations at a Middle East refinery focused on the diameter of crude unit overhead line, better corrosion control, an upgraded catalyst grading system and higher furnace temperatures
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Commercial demonstration tests carried out with a recently introduced low investment technology, Aquaconversion, have shown it as a valuable tool in revamping thermal cracking facilities and boosting a refinery's product slate.
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The Shell residue FCC process has been applied to grassroots units in a variety of locations, from Europe to South-east Asia, resulting in higher operating profits for the respective refineries.  Three such operations are discussed here.
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The development and uses of the STAR process in the dehydrogenation of C3, C4 and C5 paraffins are outlined in this article, together with a presentation of capital and conversion costs for the production of MTBE and propylene.
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By systematically working on improvements to its operating methods, catalyst management and maintenance, a Middle East plant has increased unit converstion and profitability year-on-year with no capital investment.  The authors describe how it was done.
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An examination of the operational and economic benefits of an isomerisation process employing a superior water - and sulphur-tolerant catalyst - in particular, potential capital cost savings by eliminating feed and hydrogen drying and reducing feed desulphurisation.
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The main factor in choosing upgrading processes for bottoms crude oil is often the refinery's current and anticipated product slate, say the authors of this article, but the most important consideration should be given to the part asphaltene cracking will play in the particular crude.
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Among the subjects examined in this article are the phenomenon of fouling in visbreaker units, its location and severity; the impact of operational variables, and methods of fouling reduction by operational optimisation and the application of antifoulant treatment chemicals.
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To meet the world demand for light olefins, the authors present the case for designing a fluidised light olefin catalytic cracker.  Its capabilities include a yield pattern producing large quantities of propylene, together with big C4 yields and a significant amount of aromatic gasoline.
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MHUG - Medium-Pressure Hydro Upgrading - is a single stage mild hydrocracking process which uses two proprietory Ni-W catalysts.  More than 40 units applying the catalysts have been built and operated successfully.
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A discussion of the options for modifying existing hydroprocessing units to cost effectively produce higher quality, restrictively specified diesel fuels that will meet the demands for reduced sulphur levels in the new millennium.
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An outline of the technology of residue oil converstion, dealing with the mild coking of residue oils by the LR process.  The authors also describe the process principle, its characteristics and a number of test results.
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Investigation of the transient state and optimisation of a fluidised-bed catalytic cracking unit for maximum feed while satisfying system constraints. One of the most important goals has been optimisation from an operating viewpoint



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Hydroprocessing severity and catalyst selection play a significant role in refined product sulphur distribution. But other important factors must be taken into consideration before making an investment to produce ultra low sulphur fuels


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Although many previously discussed concepts differ widely from usual industry practice, the authors have found that in most cases alternative concepts have not only improved reliability but have also reduced capital and operating costs 


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Developments in the area of hydrogen production equipment, configurations, catalysts, materials and automation have brought about improved operational reliability and effluents curtailment, as well as achieving lower operating costs


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Higher percentages of heavier feeds can be processed using FCC catalysts designed with improved coke selectivity and metals tolerance. Feedstock properties, along with their dominant bottoms-cracking mechanisms, are also reviewed


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Optimisation of process variables such as space velocity and operating pressures, using UD-HDS technology, can help to achieve 15ppm sulphur specifications, especially when processing cracked feedstocks


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A description of the properties that are required for a detailed evaluation of resids and for comparison between resids and how they play a role in dictating which refinery operations are necessary for processing



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Extra cat feed and increased profits with quality products can come from improved catalyst circulation as a result of better slide-valve pressure differential, optimised standpipe diameter and withdrawal well design



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A 35 per cent increase in C3/C4 olefins yield was achieved by a refinery in Spain using the right combination of operating variables, additives and catalysts without changing the reactor-regenerator configuration


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 Additive currently used in several FCC units increases conversion and gasoline yield without exceeding coke or gas limits. The resulting operating flexibility provided by the additive at an Australian refinery is discussed


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Newly developed olefins-to-aromatic-and-alkylate technology significantly reduces the amount of sulphur and olefins in full-range FCC gasoline, resulting in higher gasoline yields and low road octane


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Managing current hydrogen infrastructure and planning for future requirements requires careful selection of the best combination of recovery, expansion, efficiency improvements, purification and new H2 supply options



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Simulation, optimisation and identification of projects for the hydrogen system at an Austrian refinery has helped to improve its potential of over †5 million a year. The authors describe the methodology applicable to hydrogen networks


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Gasification of low-value refinery residuals could be used to raise utilities and hydrogen, allowing the relatively easy capture of half the plant’s CO2 emissions. LP modelling also helps to examine balances between SOx and CO2 emissions



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 An illustration of how membrane separation technology can be integrated into a clean fuel strategy at low capital cost relative to hydrotreating. Effective sulphur removal from certain naphtha streams, avoiding the octane penalty, is described

 
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A typical refinery configuration is used to show changes in the utilisation of hydrogen from 1990 to the present, with a look into the future. Process strategies to achieve more efficient use of hydrogen under future regulations are presented

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From fouling and catalyst carryover to high feed nickel levels and varying feed qualities, FCCU problems can be solved quickly and cost effectively, says the author, through a well-designed and properly applied chemical programme 

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Statistical process control techniques can be used in analysing and monitoring FCCUs. The author gives examples of the use of XmR charts in evaluating catalyst performance data and coke yield, and reviews other possible applications



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Based on large-scale pilot plant and commercial FCC data, the authors consider the influence of operational variables in catalyst stripability, including the use of sampling and radiotracer techniques

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A practical and economic comparison of crude quality, pre-treating, post-treating, FCC additives and sulphur credit options. Solutions to meeting future gasoline specifications could involve a combination of these options 

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A study of the economics of applying oxidative desulphurisation technology, with its dependence on the operating pressure of existing hydrotreating capacity. Two case studies show how this new route can form an effective ULSD strategy

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Heavy oil upgrading performance and profitability have been improved at a refinery in Poland by a new low sediment ebullating bed resid catalyst technology. The authors report improved unit conversion and reduced need for HCO diluents

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An account of the way ceramic technology can reduce hydrotreater operating cost and downtime by lowering the initial pressure drop. Use of dual function ceramic media also allows for the initial removal of nickel and vanadium


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Costly unscheduled hydroprocessing unit turnarounds caused by fouling can be prevented. This study explores the root cause of process fouling mechanisms and suggests cost-effective means for implementing mitigation strategies


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With a growing demand in the petrochemical industry for extended plant availability, the authors demonstrate how a new design practice was applied to a hydrocracker revamp that maximised the technical availability of the unit

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Finding and working with the right refiner can make a big difference in returns, not to mention many of the legal implications involved if the refiner crosses the line with regard to environmental regulations when processing spent catalysts

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Improvements to a FCC unit changed its operating characteristics. These changes called for a catalyst formulated with higher activity, stability and metals tolerance at higher throughputs to increase the yield of valuable liquid products

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Catalyst and additive technology can maximise light olefin yields with minimal dilution of the base catalyst and little impact on bottoms conversion. It also diminishes secondary reactions such as hydrogen transfer

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With many hydroprocessing units being pushed beyond their original design, refiners need to improve the unit’s reactor performance. Upgrading reactor top-bed loadings that include reticulated ceramics will improve catalyst performance 

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A variety of isomerisation technologies are available, from conventional once-through and deisohexaniser recycle processes to advanced recycle schemes involving molecular separation processes



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Improved catalysts and adsorbents can increase production without the need for a major revamp.  The authors focus on the combinatorial chemistry used to develop heterogeneous catalysts and adsorbents from new zeolitic materials.
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Various strategies are available to control unwanted secondary reactions in the FCCU reactor’s dilute phase, including vapour quench technology, designed to lower the temperature, or close-coupled systems to reduce the dilute phase contact time


 
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Catalyst deactivation is a challenge to FCCU yields when processing residuum. The detrimental effect of nickel and vanadium in forming contaminant coke and hydrogen can be reduced via appropriate passivation technology



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WPHEs save fuel costs and serve as a cost-effective CO2-trimming technology by reducing heater duty in reformers and HDS units. The resulting fuel cost savings add to emission trade benefits


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Several long-term challenges and opportunities face refiners after the introduction of the European Union ETS. These include emissions monitoring, operational improvements, emissions forecasting and economic emission reduction



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A comprehensive methodology is presented that maximises profitability when processing opportunity crudes while avoiding operational disruptions such as high temperature corrosion


 
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Adding value to LCO is achievable through aromatic ring manipulation, producing high-octane naphtha and low-sulphur diesel. Pilot plant results confirm the effectiveness of partial-conversion hydrocracking technology


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Overall gas oil yield was maintained with heavier crudes due to a crude tower revamp. The revamp allowed for a crude heater outlet temperature reduction and a lower vacuum flash zone pressure


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A concern for many refiners is the increasing complexity of SO2 removal from flue gases in the presence of O2. Various solutions are available to achieve 99.99% sulphur recovery without by-product formation and corrosion problems


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A description of the commercial success that came from implementing a strategy to improve hydrocracking unit performance, including the methods used for controlling polynuclear aromatics and their effect on performance
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Total Site analysis, apart from improving a refinery's energy effeciency, also brings capital avoidance in site expansion, process unit debottlenecking and other benefits.  This article describes how it was applied to a real life problem.
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The authors describe how propylene and amylenes can be alkylated using much less sulphuric acid catalyst.  When a propylene-rich feed is alkylated at high acid strengths, or amylene-rich feed is alkylated at low strengths, acid consumption is similar to that of butylenes.
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In order to choose the right combination of catalyst and technology for the production of diesel with 10ppm sulphur or less, it is essential to have a thorough understanding of the reaction kinetics in diesel hydrotreating from SOR to EOR.
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Two European refineries upgrade reformer technology, resulting in higher reformate and hydrogen yield with improved RONC and longer intervals between regeneration.
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